Facilitating Acculturation Among School-Age Latino Immigrant Children
Alicia Nuñez and Juneau Mahan Gary
The recent migration of Latino families to the United States has resulted in increased enrollment of Latino children in American schools. Children must grapple with academic pressures while experiencing a variety of acculturation stressors. School counselors are increasingly challenged to assist students with culturally sensitive support and culturally appropriate interventions that target immigrant students’ multiple and complex social, academic, cultural, and adjustment needs. We discuss the implementation of multicultural early intervention programs and counseling strategies that are effective in facilitating acculturation and, ultimately, contributing to academic success for immigrant Latino children.
Latin American families are migrating at a rapid pace to the United States from Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. Latino families reside in all states, with 75% residing in Southwestern, Southeastern, and Northeastern areas of the United States (Trueba, 1999). Between 1987 and 1990, more than one million Latino children migrated to the United States with their families (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Consequently, there is an increase in Latino student enrollment in many U.S. public schools. In New Jersey, approximately 54,000 immigrant students attend school and Spanish is the most common foreign language spoken at home (New Jersey State Department of Education, 2002-2003).
During the 1980s, approximately 6 million Latino children were enrolled in U.S. schools in grades kindergarten through 12, with as many as 2 million children speaking Spanish as their primary language (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Population estimates indicate that the number of Latino immigrant children will continue to increase at a rapid rate to 19 million by 2020 (Trueba, 1999).
In spite of the ethnic and racial diversity in the United States and previous integration of other immigrant groups into U.S. society, Latino children continue to encounter many cultural obstacles as they acculturate to their new country (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Acculturation is the process whereby one’s worldview or behavior changes as a result of interaction with a different culture (Gordon, 1964). Adapting to a new culture and community can be a difficult process for adults and can be totally overwhelming for children who must accompany their parents, either voluntarily or involuntarily.
The school system is one of the first institutions that immigrant children encounter in their new country. Yet, stressors related to migration and acculturation may impede the learning process for children and increase the academic gap between Latinos and other ethnic groups (Schwartz, 2001). Differences in language, cultural traditions, education, socioeconomic status, and cultural values, as well as grieving for relatives and friends in the native country, are examples of the many stressors that immigrant children must confront (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Experts suggested that it can take about 3 to 5 years for immigrant children to acculturate successfully in a new country and adjust to the new cultural environment (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994)
The unsuccessful coping with loss and an inability to surmount cultural stressors can result in a poor or marginal academic adjustment for some immigrant children. For example, some children may lack the necessary academic, linguistic, emotional, and/or social skills to succeed in U.S. schools. Lack of academic achievement could result in emotional withdrawal, low self-esteem, self-destructive behavior (e.g., unplanned pregnancies), or loss of personal identity, with the potential consequence of dropping out of school (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Kopala & Esquievel, 1994; Schwartz, 2001).
The increase in immigrant children in the school system necessitates that school counselors recognize the differences in and needs of children from diverse cultural backgrounds in order to equip the children with successful acculturation and learning experiences (Quisenberry, 2001). Thomas (1992) asserted that if school personnel fail to address immigrant children’s traumas and emotional needs, they are contributing, to some degree, to the children’s learning difficulties and social adjustment. Thus, educators and counselors can no longer ignore the emotional needs of the growing Latino population in the United States. It becomes imperative that counselors address Latino immigrant children’s social, academic, and emotional needs to help facilitate the acculturation process and to do so by implementing prevention and early intervention programs that reduce pertinent acculturation stressors.
In this article, we address acculturation stressors experienced by Latino immigrant children with a focus on the impact of these stressors on academic achievement. We conclude with a discussion of how counselors can facilitate acculturation within the school setting and we offer culturally sensitive early intervention strategies to facilitate acculturation.
The Latino Immigrant Population
No single label adequately describes the ethnically diverse groups of people that comprise the Latino population: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Cubans, and Central and South Americans. These ethnic groups have been influenced differently by Spanish, African, and Native American cultures. In addition to the country of origin, group members vary widely by socioeconomic status, race, socialization practices, degree of acculturation, and timing of and reasons for migration (Espinosa, 1995; Schwartz, 1998). The tremendous diversity within the Latino population demands considerable caution against labeling and perceiving Latinos as a single cultural or ethnic group (Baruth & Manning, 1992).
Process of Acculturation
Families migrating from must immerse themselves into a new country (with unfamiliar and often confusing customs and values. Family members must grasp new social normative behaviors and must use new and appropriate verbal and nonverbal skills (Coelho & Stein, 1980). Their integration into their new environment requires significant adjustment, change, and adaptation to the new social, cultural, and linguistic norms (Mena, Padilla, & Maldonado, 1987).
Acculturation refers to the transformation of one’s behaviors, social and work activities, thinking patterns, values, attitudes, feelings, and self-identity that lead to a successful and effective adjustment in the new culture (Coelho & Stein, 1980). Several models of acculturation and its phases exist, but for simplicity, we selected one model to describe. Berry (1980) identified five phases of the acculturation process:
1. Pre-contact. Members of each ethnic or cultural group bring their own system of beliefs and live within their insular community.
2. Contact. Members of ethnic or cultural groups begin to interact with members of other groups.
3. Conflict. Members struggle with relinquishing their culture in order to accommodate to the new culture.
4. Crisis. Members experience conflict and stress from acculturation.
5. Adaptation. Members adapt to the new culture and develop effective coping skills.
Acculturation is a complex, personal, and individual process of cultural change. Progression through the acculturation phases is typically nonlinear, repetitive, and stressful (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). That is, individuals may fluctuate between two phases, may experience repetitive cycles of progression followed by stagnation or regression, or may never achieve the final phase.
People acculturate at different rates based upon their personal experiences in, exposure to, length of time in, and interaction with the new culture. Moreover, variables such as age, language proficiency, socioeconomic status, education, family structure, and social support may impede or facilitate transition through the acculturation process (Miranda & Umhoefer, 1998; Thomas, 1992). Further, one’s psychological reaction to issues of control (i.e., deciding to migrate), choice (i.e., deciding where to migrate), and degree of preparedness (i.e., deciding when to migrate) may facilitate acculturation. Finally, similarities between one’s original culture and that of the new culture may facilitate the acculturation process and may minimize acculturative stress, whereas dissimilarities between cultures may impede acculturation and increase acculturative stress (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998; Kopala & Esquievel, 1994). Thus, acculturation may be a relatively smooth process for some and a traumatic experience for others.
Acculturative Stress
Psychological stress caused by the acculturation process is normal and is part of the immigration experience (Rotter & Hawley, 1997). Immigrant children in all age groups experience acculturative stress but not every immigrant child experiences acculturative stress at the same rate or with the same degree of intensity (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). In general, young children adapt more easily to a new culture than do teenagers and adults because youngsters have a less rigidly defined cultural identity and limited cultural experiences in the native culture (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Furthermore, immigrant children whose parents migrate voluntarily (e.g., for educational or economic reasons), tend to acculturate easier and faster than families that migrate involuntarily (e.g., as wartime refugees or for political reasons) (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994). Most families that immigrate voluntarily to the United States have engaged in a psychological preparedness that facilitates their acculturation in the new country.
Stress is exacerbated by adverse psychological, social, cultural, and/or physical factors that may result in emotional distress (Haggerty, Sherrod, Garmezy, & Rutter, 1996). Typical emotions include anxiety, depression, and/or anger. One’s emotional reaction can be (a) normal and/or short-term, (b) mild and/or temporarily pathological, or (c) disruptive and/or long-term. Children who experience acculturative stress may exhibit behavioral problems in school, appear withdrawn, display aggression, have difficulty socializing, or be unable to achieve academically (Kopala & Esquievel, 1994). These reactions may not be recognized immediately as depression, but may be a form of “masked depression” (Brenner, 1984). Five variables that may affect acculturative stress in immigrant children include migration, poverty, previous education, language, and school and parental involvement.
Migration
Families migrate to the United States for different reasons (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Understanding a family’s reasons for immigrating can provide insight into the type and intensity of stressors that may affect each child (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). For instance, a child who must accompany the family involuntarily or is psychologically unprepared for the migration may grieve the loss of friends and family or may experience anxiety about leaving familiar surroundings for unfamiliar ones by acting out in school. However, a child who is psychologically prepared may feel adventurous about the new surroundings and new friends while missing (but not grieving) friends and relatives remaining in the native country.
Poverty
Although Latino immigrant families represent the full spectrum of the socioeconomic status, those in poverty are at highest risk for acculturative stress and poor social adjustment. In 1991, almost 29%, or 6.3 million, of all Latinos residing in the United States, were living in poverty (Zambrana, 1995). Parents in poverty are unable to break the poverty cycle easily, mostly due to limited English proficiency, limited education, and/or inadequate occupational skills that limit their job search to low-paying jobs, typically without health benefits or job security (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994).
The parents typically do not possess the knowledge or skills to access available social, educational, or financial resources to cope effectively. Consequently, their children are vulnerable to absenteeism from school for health reasons (e.g., asthma) or family reasons (e.g., to care for siblings or elders or translate for parents at appointments). Moreover, suspensions or expulsions for inappropriate behavior (e.g., aggression) may adversely affect academic achievement. Poor academic achievement, suspensions, and absenteeism place the child at risk to drop out of school and perpetuate the vicious and repetitive cycle of poverty (Gibson, 2001).
Previous Education
Previous fragmented education or the lack of school-readiness skills can become a major obstacle to academic success in the United States (Baruth & Manning, 1992; Schwartz, 2001). Children’s educational experiences in Latin American countries vary widely. Some children attend school continuously, whereas others have fragmented educational backgrounds in their native country. For instance, political instability or economic devastation may elevate school attendance to a luxury status, making it unavailable to some children, or frequent family migrations between the native country and the United States may result in educational disruption (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998).
Language
Linguistic stressors during childhood, especially in early childhood, have the potential to instill long-term and negative effects in the development of a child’s self-concept, cultural identity, self-esteem, learning skills, social adjustment, and self-confidence (Thomas, 1992).
Language acquisition is hampered for young children who have limited language proficiency both in Spanish and in English. Without one language proficiency to establish a linguistic foundation, young children experience confusion when speaking Spanish at home and English in school. If they substitute an English word for a Spanish word, they face the risk of being considered disloyal to their Latin American culture. They may be teased and alienated by the family or community because they substitute languages, because they have a “North American” accent, or because they have not mastered Spanish (Thomas, 1992). Moreover, mastering a new language is a slow process. Although a child may grasp basic, conversational English, it may require up to 5 years to master conventional English sufficiently enough to excel academically (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994; Thomas 1992). During the mastery period, feelings of dissatisfaction, embarrassment, and guilt are common and may be intensified when self-doubts emanate from the inability to articulate in the new language (Miranda & Umhoefer, 1998). Rather than practice the new language, some children cope by engaging in “selective mutism” to disguise their embarrassment and inadequacy (Kopala & Esquivel).
Second, the family’s style of communication may affect language acquisition in both languages. In many Latino cultures, the communication style tends to be directive and unidirectional, from parent to child. Directive communication emphasizes obedience and respect for adult authority and tends to limit a child’s language skills, self-expression, self-confidence, and assertiveness (Espinosa, 1995). In general, fellow classmates in the United States have been encouraged to practice collaborative conversation and elaborated speech at home. Thus, the language skills of youngsters native to the United States tend to be more expressive and more developed compared to the language skills of some immigrant Latino students of the same age. Because U.S. teachers also emphasize the acquisition of expressive language skills, immigrant students may experience dissonance when confronted by directive communication at home and confronted with the expectation of expressive language at school.
School and Parental Involvement
Compared to middle-class U.S. standards, Latino immigrant parents, especially those parents in poverty, tend to maintain minimal interaction with school personnel. Because Latino parents tend to perceive school personnel as the ultimate authority in educational decisions for their children, they tend to shy away from active participation as an equal partner (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). Consequently, school personnel encourage parental involvement, whereas Latino parents perceive involvement as a transgression of boundaries. Thus, the expectations of school personnel and Latino parents are incongruous, with the potential for miscommunication and distrust to erode the partnership.
In addition to the Latino cultural value of respect for authority, including educators, there are pragmatic reasons for limited parental participation with school personnel. Parents may have limited or no English proficiency and prefer to shun contact to avoid linguistic mistakes and embarrassment, just as their children may engage in selective mutism. Other parents may be concerned about an undocumented immigration status and may fear deportation for themselves and/or their children if they make contact with school personnel (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). Furthermore, parents in poverty encounter financial hardships that make them less available for parent-teacher conferences because they must work long hours or multiple jobs.
Implications for School CounselorsThe school system is one of the first institutions that new Latino immigrant children encounter (Baruth & Manning, 1992). Thus, school counselors are a logical choice to assist immigrant children to cope effectively with the stresses of migration and acculturation (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001; Kopala & Esquivel, 1994). Yet, facilitating the acculturation process of immigrant children requires a cultural sensitivity and specific knowledge base that many school counselors may not have acquired.
School counselors are challenged to facilitate early, structured, and culturally sensitive interventions to promote the healthy adjustment of immigrant children. They must incorporate culturally sensitive classroom activities, small group exercises, and individual sessions to facilitate acculturation and effective learning. In addition to multicultural interventions and techniques, counselors must consider the child’s cultural background, family dynamics, language development, socioeconomic status, nonverbal communication, and other individual differences when deciding to intervene. Cultural sensitivity to considerations such as these may enable parents to perceive the counselor as an effective and trusted change agent for Latino immigrant children (Baruth & Manning, 1992). To be trusted by and effective with an immigrant population, counselors must establish a “cultural foundation” that consists of (a) parental partnerships, (b) appreciation for language preference, and (c) a multicultural perspective. Clearly, counselors must reach beyond the comfort of school walls and daily routines to be successful as multicultural change agents.
Parental Partnerships
In general, the Latino family is the main source of emotional support and guidance for children. Although parents are reluctant to seek help external to the family or to question authority, Vargas and Koss-Chioino(1992) and Thomas (1992) asserted that an external partnership can assist immigrant parents in helping their children acculturate and succeed in U.S. schools by empowering the family. Partnerships with parents can be enhanced through improved communication and through community collaboration.
Counselors must attempt to empower parents and facilitate parental involvement with cultural sensitivity, in a manner that would put families at ease must and do so at every formal and informal opportunity (Ginorio& Huston, 2001; Igner, 1992; Schwartz, 2001). For instance, school personnel must collaborate with community support systems to cosponsor programs (e.g., English language courses for adults, acculturation programs facilitated by successful former immigrants, GED and college preparatory classes, health fairs, and job fairs) in school and in the community that are valued and used by immigrant families and scheduled during times convenient for the families. As parents visit the school to attend fairs or enroll in adult courses and interact with school personnel, their comfort level and parental involvement may increase.
Improved communication between school personnel and parents may enhance parental empowerment as parents are informed about the progress of their children as well as the availability of school activities and programs. Bilingual school personnel must continue to be a vital bridge of communication between Spanish-speaking parents and other school personnel, along with written correspondence in Spanish and English, contacts by telephone, and informal conversations in community settings such as grocery stores or church. Various forms of communication increase the probability that all Latino parents are informed because parents’ English language skills will vary widely.
Language Preference
Language can become a barrier or an asset when working with an immigrant population whose native language is not English. Yet, scant attention has been devoted to the use of language, as in language preference, for children and parents with limited proficiency in English (Ramos-Sanchez, Atkinson, & Fraga, 1999).
When language is a barrier, it can provoke counterproductive fear and anxiety in children, especially in an English-only activity, experiential exercise, academic classroom, or counseling session with a monolingual counselor (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). In these situations, children may be unable to comprehend English, may have difficulty in self-expression in the new language, or may become overly concerned with proper pronunciation of words and with grammatical correctness rather than focusing on expressing their true emotional needs. These situations can result in embarrassment and/or avoidance of school or counseling activities.
A linguistic barrier can be surmounted in most instances through “language switching” (Altaribba & Bauer, 1998). In language switching, a child with limited English proficiency is matched with a bilingual counselor or professional interpreter who can express emotions in the language that is most meaningful and precise. For example, bilingual counselors facilitate bilingual group counseling sessions to ensure that each child speaks and comprehends in Spanish or English, based upon individual comfort levels (Nuñez, 2002). If a bilingual counselor is not available, a trained, professional interpreter would do the translation and hopefully bridge the language gap between a monolingual counselor and a student with limited English proficiency. We emphasize trained and professional interpreters because untrained bilingual persons filling the role of interpreters often edit conversations and engage the student in side conversations (for clarification) that the counselor is unable to access. In spite of benevolent attempts to assist, the untrained interpreter dilutes the counseling process with inaccurate and/or biased interpretation (Cross Cultural Health Care Program, 1998). It is imperative then, that schools hire bilingual counselors or provide professional interpreters.
Bilingual school counselors are a necessity, not a luxury, for school districts with a significant number of Latino children. Current immigration patterns have created a strong demand for bilingual counselors who can communicate with children and their families in two or more languages and assist the children through the acculturation process.
Experiential Group Interventions
The implementation of school-based transition support groups for recently arrived Latino immigrant children can be an early intervention technique. A transition support group helps students confront and cope with issues that the immigrant child is experiencing. Nuñez (2002) provided one example of a 12-session, structured transition group that engages children in discussing and participating in activities that enable them to explore their thoughts and feelings about their adjustment in the new culture. The support group contributes to facilitating the acculturation process, increasing a positive self-identity, and reducing long-term or serious educational and adjustment problems. Transition support groups entail activities and discussions that improve academic achievement by providing stress management skills, enhancing bicultural adjustment, increasing self-awareness and self-esteem, reinforcing study skills, and appreciating an awareness of and respect for cultural differences. Specifically, stress management will teach students how to cope effectively in a new cultural environment. Bicultural adjustment will be enhanced when applying interventions that are compatible with the students’ cultural backgrounds and learning style preferences (Griggs & Dunn, 1996). Interventions such as self-esteem building, study skills, developing positive cultural identities, and understanding cultural expectations of the new culture will increase self-confidence and promote a positive attitude and outlook.
Group work, in particular, is a culturally appropriate and effective intervention with Latino children. First, the Latino culture, in general, tends to emphasize cooperation with others as well as respect for group values over individual needs (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Schwartz, 2001). Second, group work provides support, camaraderie, different perspectives, and validation for children who may feel isolated and overwhelmed by the acculturation process. Others struggle too, and this is not always evident to an immigrant child or family when emotionally distressed and isolated. The group environment enables children to experience the therapeutic factor of universality (Yalom, 1995) as they share similar thoughts, feelings, fears, and/or reactions in a supportive group environment.
Groups may be facilitated in Spanish or in Spanish and English, based upon the language skills of the children in the group. Group interventions such as structured transition groups enable the counselor to identify transition difficulties and assess each child’s stage of acculturation. With emotional support from group members and a sense of normalcy, each child may feel less isolated, less lonely, more likely to traverse the acculturation process, more likely to focus on academic achievement, and less likely to act out (Baruth & Manning, 1992).
Cuento Therapy (Storytelling Therapy)
Cuento therapy is an example of a group intervention technique. In Cuento therapy, cultural values from the native country are transmitted to Latino children in Spanish through traditional folktales recounted or read by parents or adult relatives. The reading or oral transmission of folktales is compatible with the Latino child’s cultural background, language, values, and auditory learning style, thus providing a familiar and comfortable language and cultural experience in which children are eager to participate (Ada, 1990; Bernier-Grand, 1994). The folktales illuminate some of the most important cultural themes, customs, and practices that underlie a country’s thoughts and actions (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Seelye, 1993). Following the folktale, counselors and adults help children to analyze the morals and human values illustrated in the story, find similarities with and applications to U.S. society, and incorporate the morals into their daily lives in the United States (Esquivel & Keitel, 1990). Cuento therapy has been used successfully to reduce behavioral or emotional problems resulting from acculturative stress by reinforcing adaptive behavior and fostering ego development and self-confidence as children transition from their traditional culture to their new life in the United States (Esquivel & Keitel).
A secondary benefit to Cuento therapy is positive interaction between parents and school personnel. Cuento therapy facilitates the parent-school personnel partnership previously discussed, as parents become equal partners with school personnel in the education and acculturation of the children.
ConclusionAcculturating or adapting to a new culture and community can be a very difficult process and a vulnerable time for new Latino immigrant children without appropriate and culturally sensitive support from counselors. The children must grapple with academic pressure while experiencing a variety of acculturative stressors, although their individual level of preparation to handle the demands varies widely. A child’s failure to cope effectively may result in major learning difficulties, behavioral problems, poor social adjustment, or low academic achievement (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Cardenas & Taylor, 1993).
School counselors must be challenged to provide Latino immigrant children with appropriate interventions that target each child’s multiple and complex needs in order to facilitate acculturation and improve academic achievement. Counselors must implement prevention and early intervention programs that are culturally sensitive and that are effective in facilitating acculturation and, ultimately, academic success.
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Author’s Note:
Alicia Nuñez , M.A. is a bilingual School Counselor with the Perth Amboy Board of Education, Perth Amboy, NJ.
Juneau Mahan Gary, Psy.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education and Counseling, Kean University, Union, NJ 07083
Latin American families are migrating at a rapid pace to the United States from Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. Latino families reside in all states, with 75% residing in Southwestern, Southeastern, and Northeastern areas of the United States (Trueba, 1999). Between 1987 and 1990, more than one million Latino children migrated to the United States with their families (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Consequently, there is an increase in Latino student enrollment in many U.S. public schools. In New Jersey, approximately 54,000 immigrant students attend school and Spanish is the most common foreign language spoken at home (New Jersey State Department of Education, 2002-2003).
During the 1980s, approximately 6 million Latino children were enrolled in U.S. schools in grades kindergarten through 12, with as many as 2 million children speaking Spanish as their primary language (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Population estimates indicate that the number of Latino immigrant children will continue to increase at a rapid rate to 19 million by 2020 (Trueba, 1999).
In spite of the ethnic and racial diversity in the United States and previous integration of other immigrant groups into U.S. society, Latino children continue to encounter many cultural obstacles as they acculturate to their new country (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Acculturation is the process whereby one’s worldview or behavior changes as a result of interaction with a different culture (Gordon, 1964). Adapting to a new culture and community can be a difficult process for adults and can be totally overwhelming for children who must accompany their parents, either voluntarily or involuntarily.
The school system is one of the first institutions that immigrant children encounter in their new country. Yet, stressors related to migration and acculturation may impede the learning process for children and increase the academic gap between Latinos and other ethnic groups (Schwartz, 2001). Differences in language, cultural traditions, education, socioeconomic status, and cultural values, as well as grieving for relatives and friends in the native country, are examples of the many stressors that immigrant children must confront (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). Experts suggested that it can take about 3 to 5 years for immigrant children to acculturate successfully in a new country and adjust to the new cultural environment (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994)
The unsuccessful coping with loss and an inability to surmount cultural stressors can result in a poor or marginal academic adjustment for some immigrant children. For example, some children may lack the necessary academic, linguistic, emotional, and/or social skills to succeed in U.S. schools. Lack of academic achievement could result in emotional withdrawal, low self-esteem, self-destructive behavior (e.g., unplanned pregnancies), or loss of personal identity, with the potential consequence of dropping out of school (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Kopala & Esquievel, 1994; Schwartz, 2001).
The increase in immigrant children in the school system necessitates that school counselors recognize the differences in and needs of children from diverse cultural backgrounds in order to equip the children with successful acculturation and learning experiences (Quisenberry, 2001). Thomas (1992) asserted that if school personnel fail to address immigrant children’s traumas and emotional needs, they are contributing, to some degree, to the children’s learning difficulties and social adjustment. Thus, educators and counselors can no longer ignore the emotional needs of the growing Latino population in the United States. It becomes imperative that counselors address Latino immigrant children’s social, academic, and emotional needs to help facilitate the acculturation process and to do so by implementing prevention and early intervention programs that reduce pertinent acculturation stressors.
In this article, we address acculturation stressors experienced by Latino immigrant children with a focus on the impact of these stressors on academic achievement. We conclude with a discussion of how counselors can facilitate acculturation within the school setting and we offer culturally sensitive early intervention strategies to facilitate acculturation.
The Latino Immigrant Population
No single label adequately describes the ethnically diverse groups of people that comprise the Latino population: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Cubans, and Central and South Americans. These ethnic groups have been influenced differently by Spanish, African, and Native American cultures. In addition to the country of origin, group members vary widely by socioeconomic status, race, socialization practices, degree of acculturation, and timing of and reasons for migration (Espinosa, 1995; Schwartz, 1998). The tremendous diversity within the Latino population demands considerable caution against labeling and perceiving Latinos as a single cultural or ethnic group (Baruth & Manning, 1992).
Process of Acculturation
Families migrating from must immerse themselves into a new country (with unfamiliar and often confusing customs and values. Family members must grasp new social normative behaviors and must use new and appropriate verbal and nonverbal skills (Coelho & Stein, 1980). Their integration into their new environment requires significant adjustment, change, and adaptation to the new social, cultural, and linguistic norms (Mena, Padilla, & Maldonado, 1987).
Acculturation refers to the transformation of one’s behaviors, social and work activities, thinking patterns, values, attitudes, feelings, and self-identity that lead to a successful and effective adjustment in the new culture (Coelho & Stein, 1980). Several models of acculturation and its phases exist, but for simplicity, we selected one model to describe. Berry (1980) identified five phases of the acculturation process:
1. Pre-contact. Members of each ethnic or cultural group bring their own system of beliefs and live within their insular community.
2. Contact. Members of ethnic or cultural groups begin to interact with members of other groups.
3. Conflict. Members struggle with relinquishing their culture in order to accommodate to the new culture.
4. Crisis. Members experience conflict and stress from acculturation.
5. Adaptation. Members adapt to the new culture and develop effective coping skills.
Acculturation is a complex, personal, and individual process of cultural change. Progression through the acculturation phases is typically nonlinear, repetitive, and stressful (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). That is, individuals may fluctuate between two phases, may experience repetitive cycles of progression followed by stagnation or regression, or may never achieve the final phase.
People acculturate at different rates based upon their personal experiences in, exposure to, length of time in, and interaction with the new culture. Moreover, variables such as age, language proficiency, socioeconomic status, education, family structure, and social support may impede or facilitate transition through the acculturation process (Miranda & Umhoefer, 1998; Thomas, 1992). Further, one’s psychological reaction to issues of control (i.e., deciding to migrate), choice (i.e., deciding where to migrate), and degree of preparedness (i.e., deciding when to migrate) may facilitate acculturation. Finally, similarities between one’s original culture and that of the new culture may facilitate the acculturation process and may minimize acculturative stress, whereas dissimilarities between cultures may impede acculturation and increase acculturative stress (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998; Kopala & Esquievel, 1994). Thus, acculturation may be a relatively smooth process for some and a traumatic experience for others.
Acculturative Stress
Psychological stress caused by the acculturation process is normal and is part of the immigration experience (Rotter & Hawley, 1997). Immigrant children in all age groups experience acculturative stress but not every immigrant child experiences acculturative stress at the same rate or with the same degree of intensity (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). In general, young children adapt more easily to a new culture than do teenagers and adults because youngsters have a less rigidly defined cultural identity and limited cultural experiences in the native culture (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Furthermore, immigrant children whose parents migrate voluntarily (e.g., for educational or economic reasons), tend to acculturate easier and faster than families that migrate involuntarily (e.g., as wartime refugees or for political reasons) (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994). Most families that immigrate voluntarily to the United States have engaged in a psychological preparedness that facilitates their acculturation in the new country.
Stress is exacerbated by adverse psychological, social, cultural, and/or physical factors that may result in emotional distress (Haggerty, Sherrod, Garmezy, & Rutter, 1996). Typical emotions include anxiety, depression, and/or anger. One’s emotional reaction can be (a) normal and/or short-term, (b) mild and/or temporarily pathological, or (c) disruptive and/or long-term. Children who experience acculturative stress may exhibit behavioral problems in school, appear withdrawn, display aggression, have difficulty socializing, or be unable to achieve academically (Kopala & Esquievel, 1994). These reactions may not be recognized immediately as depression, but may be a form of “masked depression” (Brenner, 1984). Five variables that may affect acculturative stress in immigrant children include migration, poverty, previous education, language, and school and parental involvement.
Migration
Families migrate to the United States for different reasons (Kurtz-Costes & Pungello, 2001). Understanding a family’s reasons for immigrating can provide insight into the type and intensity of stressors that may affect each child (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). For instance, a child who must accompany the family involuntarily or is psychologically unprepared for the migration may grieve the loss of friends and family or may experience anxiety about leaving familiar surroundings for unfamiliar ones by acting out in school. However, a child who is psychologically prepared may feel adventurous about the new surroundings and new friends while missing (but not grieving) friends and relatives remaining in the native country.
Poverty
Although Latino immigrant families represent the full spectrum of the socioeconomic status, those in poverty are at highest risk for acculturative stress and poor social adjustment. In 1991, almost 29%, or 6.3 million, of all Latinos residing in the United States, were living in poverty (Zambrana, 1995). Parents in poverty are unable to break the poverty cycle easily, mostly due to limited English proficiency, limited education, and/or inadequate occupational skills that limit their job search to low-paying jobs, typically without health benefits or job security (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994).
The parents typically do not possess the knowledge or skills to access available social, educational, or financial resources to cope effectively. Consequently, their children are vulnerable to absenteeism from school for health reasons (e.g., asthma) or family reasons (e.g., to care for siblings or elders or translate for parents at appointments). Moreover, suspensions or expulsions for inappropriate behavior (e.g., aggression) may adversely affect academic achievement. Poor academic achievement, suspensions, and absenteeism place the child at risk to drop out of school and perpetuate the vicious and repetitive cycle of poverty (Gibson, 2001).
Previous Education
Previous fragmented education or the lack of school-readiness skills can become a major obstacle to academic success in the United States (Baruth & Manning, 1992; Schwartz, 2001). Children’s educational experiences in Latin American countries vary widely. Some children attend school continuously, whereas others have fragmented educational backgrounds in their native country. For instance, political instability or economic devastation may elevate school attendance to a luxury status, making it unavailable to some children, or frequent family migrations between the native country and the United States may result in educational disruption (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998).
Language
Linguistic stressors during childhood, especially in early childhood, have the potential to instill long-term and negative effects in the development of a child’s self-concept, cultural identity, self-esteem, learning skills, social adjustment, and self-confidence (Thomas, 1992).
Language acquisition is hampered for young children who have limited language proficiency both in Spanish and in English. Without one language proficiency to establish a linguistic foundation, young children experience confusion when speaking Spanish at home and English in school. If they substitute an English word for a Spanish word, they face the risk of being considered disloyal to their Latin American culture. They may be teased and alienated by the family or community because they substitute languages, because they have a “North American” accent, or because they have not mastered Spanish (Thomas, 1992). Moreover, mastering a new language is a slow process. Although a child may grasp basic, conversational English, it may require up to 5 years to master conventional English sufficiently enough to excel academically (Kopala & Esquivel, 1994; Thomas 1992). During the mastery period, feelings of dissatisfaction, embarrassment, and guilt are common and may be intensified when self-doubts emanate from the inability to articulate in the new language (Miranda & Umhoefer, 1998). Rather than practice the new language, some children cope by engaging in “selective mutism” to disguise their embarrassment and inadequacy (Kopala & Esquivel).
Second, the family’s style of communication may affect language acquisition in both languages. In many Latino cultures, the communication style tends to be directive and unidirectional, from parent to child. Directive communication emphasizes obedience and respect for adult authority and tends to limit a child’s language skills, self-expression, self-confidence, and assertiveness (Espinosa, 1995). In general, fellow classmates in the United States have been encouraged to practice collaborative conversation and elaborated speech at home. Thus, the language skills of youngsters native to the United States tend to be more expressive and more developed compared to the language skills of some immigrant Latino students of the same age. Because U.S. teachers also emphasize the acquisition of expressive language skills, immigrant students may experience dissonance when confronted by directive communication at home and confronted with the expectation of expressive language at school.
School and Parental Involvement
Compared to middle-class U.S. standards, Latino immigrant parents, especially those parents in poverty, tend to maintain minimal interaction with school personnel. Because Latino parents tend to perceive school personnel as the ultimate authority in educational decisions for their children, they tend to shy away from active participation as an equal partner (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). Consequently, school personnel encourage parental involvement, whereas Latino parents perceive involvement as a transgression of boundaries. Thus, the expectations of school personnel and Latino parents are incongruous, with the potential for miscommunication and distrust to erode the partnership.
In addition to the Latino cultural value of respect for authority, including educators, there are pragmatic reasons for limited parental participation with school personnel. Parents may have limited or no English proficiency and prefer to shun contact to avoid linguistic mistakes and embarrassment, just as their children may engage in selective mutism. Other parents may be concerned about an undocumented immigration status and may fear deportation for themselves and/or their children if they make contact with school personnel (Gopaul-McNoil & Thomas-Presswood, 1998). Furthermore, parents in poverty encounter financial hardships that make them less available for parent-teacher conferences because they must work long hours or multiple jobs.
Implications for School CounselorsThe school system is one of the first institutions that new Latino immigrant children encounter (Baruth & Manning, 1992). Thus, school counselors are a logical choice to assist immigrant children to cope effectively with the stresses of migration and acculturation (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001; Kopala & Esquivel, 1994). Yet, facilitating the acculturation process of immigrant children requires a cultural sensitivity and specific knowledge base that many school counselors may not have acquired.
School counselors are challenged to facilitate early, structured, and culturally sensitive interventions to promote the healthy adjustment of immigrant children. They must incorporate culturally sensitive classroom activities, small group exercises, and individual sessions to facilitate acculturation and effective learning. In addition to multicultural interventions and techniques, counselors must consider the child’s cultural background, family dynamics, language development, socioeconomic status, nonverbal communication, and other individual differences when deciding to intervene. Cultural sensitivity to considerations such as these may enable parents to perceive the counselor as an effective and trusted change agent for Latino immigrant children (Baruth & Manning, 1992). To be trusted by and effective with an immigrant population, counselors must establish a “cultural foundation” that consists of (a) parental partnerships, (b) appreciation for language preference, and (c) a multicultural perspective. Clearly, counselors must reach beyond the comfort of school walls and daily routines to be successful as multicultural change agents.
Parental Partnerships
In general, the Latino family is the main source of emotional support and guidance for children. Although parents are reluctant to seek help external to the family or to question authority, Vargas and Koss-Chioino(1992) and Thomas (1992) asserted that an external partnership can assist immigrant parents in helping their children acculturate and succeed in U.S. schools by empowering the family. Partnerships with parents can be enhanced through improved communication and through community collaboration.
Counselors must attempt to empower parents and facilitate parental involvement with cultural sensitivity, in a manner that would put families at ease must and do so at every formal and informal opportunity (Ginorio& Huston, 2001; Igner, 1992; Schwartz, 2001). For instance, school personnel must collaborate with community support systems to cosponsor programs (e.g., English language courses for adults, acculturation programs facilitated by successful former immigrants, GED and college preparatory classes, health fairs, and job fairs) in school and in the community that are valued and used by immigrant families and scheduled during times convenient for the families. As parents visit the school to attend fairs or enroll in adult courses and interact with school personnel, their comfort level and parental involvement may increase.
Improved communication between school personnel and parents may enhance parental empowerment as parents are informed about the progress of their children as well as the availability of school activities and programs. Bilingual school personnel must continue to be a vital bridge of communication between Spanish-speaking parents and other school personnel, along with written correspondence in Spanish and English, contacts by telephone, and informal conversations in community settings such as grocery stores or church. Various forms of communication increase the probability that all Latino parents are informed because parents’ English language skills will vary widely.
Language Preference
Language can become a barrier or an asset when working with an immigrant population whose native language is not English. Yet, scant attention has been devoted to the use of language, as in language preference, for children and parents with limited proficiency in English (Ramos-Sanchez, Atkinson, & Fraga, 1999).
When language is a barrier, it can provoke counterproductive fear and anxiety in children, especially in an English-only activity, experiential exercise, academic classroom, or counseling session with a monolingual counselor (Gonzalez-Ramos & Sanchez-Nester, 2001). In these situations, children may be unable to comprehend English, may have difficulty in self-expression in the new language, or may become overly concerned with proper pronunciation of words and with grammatical correctness rather than focusing on expressing their true emotional needs. These situations can result in embarrassment and/or avoidance of school or counseling activities.
A linguistic barrier can be surmounted in most instances through “language switching” (Altaribba & Bauer, 1998). In language switching, a child with limited English proficiency is matched with a bilingual counselor or professional interpreter who can express emotions in the language that is most meaningful and precise. For example, bilingual counselors facilitate bilingual group counseling sessions to ensure that each child speaks and comprehends in Spanish or English, based upon individual comfort levels (Nuñez, 2002). If a bilingual counselor is not available, a trained, professional interpreter would do the translation and hopefully bridge the language gap between a monolingual counselor and a student with limited English proficiency. We emphasize trained and professional interpreters because untrained bilingual persons filling the role of interpreters often edit conversations and engage the student in side conversations (for clarification) that the counselor is unable to access. In spite of benevolent attempts to assist, the untrained interpreter dilutes the counseling process with inaccurate and/or biased interpretation (Cross Cultural Health Care Program, 1998). It is imperative then, that schools hire bilingual counselors or provide professional interpreters.
Bilingual school counselors are a necessity, not a luxury, for school districts with a significant number of Latino children. Current immigration patterns have created a strong demand for bilingual counselors who can communicate with children and their families in two or more languages and assist the children through the acculturation process.
Experiential Group Interventions
The implementation of school-based transition support groups for recently arrived Latino immigrant children can be an early intervention technique. A transition support group helps students confront and cope with issues that the immigrant child is experiencing. Nuñez (2002) provided one example of a 12-session, structured transition group that engages children in discussing and participating in activities that enable them to explore their thoughts and feelings about their adjustment in the new culture. The support group contributes to facilitating the acculturation process, increasing a positive self-identity, and reducing long-term or serious educational and adjustment problems. Transition support groups entail activities and discussions that improve academic achievement by providing stress management skills, enhancing bicultural adjustment, increasing self-awareness and self-esteem, reinforcing study skills, and appreciating an awareness of and respect for cultural differences. Specifically, stress management will teach students how to cope effectively in a new cultural environment. Bicultural adjustment will be enhanced when applying interventions that are compatible with the students’ cultural backgrounds and learning style preferences (Griggs & Dunn, 1996). Interventions such as self-esteem building, study skills, developing positive cultural identities, and understanding cultural expectations of the new culture will increase self-confidence and promote a positive attitude and outlook.
Group work, in particular, is a culturally appropriate and effective intervention with Latino children. First, the Latino culture, in general, tends to emphasize cooperation with others as well as respect for group values over individual needs (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Schwartz, 2001). Second, group work provides support, camaraderie, different perspectives, and validation for children who may feel isolated and overwhelmed by the acculturation process. Others struggle too, and this is not always evident to an immigrant child or family when emotionally distressed and isolated. The group environment enables children to experience the therapeutic factor of universality (Yalom, 1995) as they share similar thoughts, feelings, fears, and/or reactions in a supportive group environment.
Groups may be facilitated in Spanish or in Spanish and English, based upon the language skills of the children in the group. Group interventions such as structured transition groups enable the counselor to identify transition difficulties and assess each child’s stage of acculturation. With emotional support from group members and a sense of normalcy, each child may feel less isolated, less lonely, more likely to traverse the acculturation process, more likely to focus on academic achievement, and less likely to act out (Baruth & Manning, 1992).
Cuento Therapy (Storytelling Therapy)
Cuento therapy is an example of a group intervention technique. In Cuento therapy, cultural values from the native country are transmitted to Latino children in Spanish through traditional folktales recounted or read by parents or adult relatives. The reading or oral transmission of folktales is compatible with the Latino child’s cultural background, language, values, and auditory learning style, thus providing a familiar and comfortable language and cultural experience in which children are eager to participate (Ada, 1990; Bernier-Grand, 1994). The folktales illuminate some of the most important cultural themes, customs, and practices that underlie a country’s thoughts and actions (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Seelye, 1993). Following the folktale, counselors and adults help children to analyze the morals and human values illustrated in the story, find similarities with and applications to U.S. society, and incorporate the morals into their daily lives in the United States (Esquivel & Keitel, 1990). Cuento therapy has been used successfully to reduce behavioral or emotional problems resulting from acculturative stress by reinforcing adaptive behavior and fostering ego development and self-confidence as children transition from their traditional culture to their new life in the United States (Esquivel & Keitel).
A secondary benefit to Cuento therapy is positive interaction between parents and school personnel. Cuento therapy facilitates the parent-school personnel partnership previously discussed, as parents become equal partners with school personnel in the education and acculturation of the children.
ConclusionAcculturating or adapting to a new culture and community can be a very difficult process and a vulnerable time for new Latino immigrant children without appropriate and culturally sensitive support from counselors. The children must grapple with academic pressure while experiencing a variety of acculturative stressors, although their individual level of preparation to handle the demands varies widely. A child’s failure to cope effectively may result in major learning difficulties, behavioral problems, poor social adjustment, or low academic achievement (Canino & Spurlock, 1994; Cardenas & Taylor, 1993).
School counselors must be challenged to provide Latino immigrant children with appropriate interventions that target each child’s multiple and complex needs in order to facilitate acculturation and improve academic achievement. Counselors must implement prevention and early intervention programs that are culturally sensitive and that are effective in facilitating acculturation and, ultimately, academic success.
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Author’s Note:
Alicia Nuñez , M.A. is a bilingual School Counselor with the Perth Amboy Board of Education, Perth Amboy, NJ.
Juneau Mahan Gary, Psy.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education and Counseling, Kean University, Union, NJ 07083